RACISM IN NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE

Native American literature, art, photography, videography, and other media and art forms deal with weighty and important issues relevant to their people. These issues include alcoholism and the assumptions that accompany those persons of Native American descent, socioeconomic disadvantage, educational disadvantage, the stigma of laziness, and the identity crisis that occurs with the dichotomy between non-Native and Native American cultural ideals. However, one of the most crucial themes in Native American literature is the theme of racism and the value of ethnocentric ideals. This theme is one that is challenged and addressed in the works of prolific writers Sherman Alexie, Joseph Bruchac, Emily Pauline Johnson, Devon A. Mihesuah, and Anna Lee Walters in their respective works entitled "Indian Education," "Peter Schuyler and the Mohican: A Story of Old Albany," "A Red Girl's Reasoning," "Mama and Papa," and "Apparitions" through narrative structure, literary devices, and characterization.

"Native American"

Mihályi Anita

This piece of art embodies the inherent strength of Native American people and demonstrates the determination and perseverance of Junior's character in "Indian Education." Additionally, it speaks to and personifies the isolation racism and ethnocentrism can cause.

"INDIAN EDUCATION" BY SHERMAN ALEXIE

In "Indian Education," the themes of racism and ethnocentrism are clear through the eyes of the narrator and protagonist, Junior Polatkin. Feelings of inadequacy, exclusion, isolation, and "otherness" occur in the story beginning in Junior's first-grade year and continuing until the story ends following his high school graduation. Alexie carefully pits the juvenile innocence of Junior against the non-Native American adults and majority of students in his life not only to reveal character but to further underscore the ruthlessness of the socionormative world, as in the following example: "Once, [Betty Towle] gave the class a spelling test but set me aside and gave me a test designed for junior high students. When I spelled all the words right, she crumpled up the paper and made me eat it. 'You'll learn respect,' she said. She sent a letter home with me that told my parents to either cut my braids or keep me home from class. My parents came in the next day and dragged their braids across Betty Towle's desk. 'Indians, indians, indians,'" (Alexie 9). Alexie's ability to deftly tackle the challenging issue of racism bluntly and with wit as he does in "Indian Education" provides the reader with a unique and enlightening perspective on the challenges minority peoples face in their day to day lives. Additionally, Alexie's decision to craft the story in a journal or diary form that reads like a nonfiction work sheds light on the issue of racism while simultaneously culling a sympathetic response from the reader. Ergo, Alexie adeptly creates an invaluable intimacy with the reader that perpetuates a feeling of empathy for Junior's unique disadvantages and challenges as a Native American student.

One of the most important passages in the story that reveals Alexie's stance on ethnocentrism and racism towards Native American peoples occurs on page 11: "That was Randy, my soon-to-be first and best friend, who taught me the most valuable lesson about living in the white world: Always throw the first punch" (Alexie 11). This passage serves as the crux of the story, both in terms of narrative structure and theme. In regard to narrative structure, the aforementioned passage occurs when Junior is in the sixth grade, in the chronological middle of the story, which alone draws the reader's attention to the passage. In regard to theme, Alexie implies his authorial perspective powerfully and succinctly in the last segment of the passage: "Always throw the first punch." Alexie's syntax and diction emphasize the offensive mindset of the Native American student in order to survive the day-to-day emotional, verbal, and physical battery he or she is likely to encounter.

Finally, Alexie leverages an experience Junior and "the Chicano teacher" share during a basketball game to illuminate an important facet of the story: "As my white friends revived me and prepared to take me to the emergency room where doctors would later diagnose my diabetes, the Chicano teacher ran up to us. 'Hey,' he said. 'What's that boy been drinking? I know all about these Indian kids. They start drinking real young.' Sharing dark skin doesn't necessarily make two men brothers" (Alexie 12). This passage not only underscores the stigma of alcoholism which surrounds Native American peoples, but also furthers the insight the reader has into Alexie's perspective on racism in this story. The final line in the passage is cutting and Alexie's diction, syntax, rhythm, and narrative structure continue unfazed, as the character of Junior does, which reveals to the reader Alexie's value of persistence and resilience.

"Native American Smiling"

The above image captures the zeal and hilarity which juxtapose the heavier theme of racism in "Peter Schuyler and the Mohican: A Story of Old Albany." It is an excellent representation of the inherent pride in Native American cultural ideals as well.

"PETER SCHUYLER AND THE MOHICAN: A STORY OF OLD ALBANY" BY JOSEPH BRUCHAC

In "Peter Schuyler and the Mohican: A Story of Old Albany," Bruchac employs a number of literary devices to highlight his authorial perspective on ethnocentric, racist ideals. Bruchac, like Alexie in "Indian Education," addresses the theme of racism against Native American peoples through the dichotomous relationship between non-American Indian people and Native Americans. This dichotomy, or schism in cultures, furthers racist ideals on the part of the non-Native person and further isolates the targeted culture, which is, in the case of "Peter Schuyler and the Mohican: A Story of Old Albany," Native American people. Bruchac wastes no time establishing the foundation for the story's theme in the first paragraph: "One day, on his customary walk, he saw a Mohican man sitting with his feet dangling over the edge of one of the piers, watching the ships and the river and quite obviously doing nothing useful. Mayor Schuyler was a man much devoted to doing useful work. So he approached the Indian and said, 'You, there, why don't you do some work, you lazy good-for-nothing?' 'Why don't you work, Mayor?' said the Mohican. 'What?' said Schuyler. 'I work all the time. I just do it in my head'" (Bruchac 14). Bruchac establishes the tension between men and the cultures they represent immediately so the reader is prepared to experience the volleying between ideals throughout the story.

A crucial facet of this story is the internal dialogue in Schuyler's character. Page 15 showcases a particularly cutting and revealing passage: "There was no way [Schuyler] would let an Indian get the better of him. The Mayor decided he would teach this Mohican a lesson he would not forget. Taking out a piece of paper, he wrote on it, The bearer of this is a rogue. Give him a good beating. Then he signed it, folded it, and sealed it" (Bruchac 15). This passage shows the inability of Schuyler to see the Mohican as an equal, thus harshly highlighting his ethnocentrism, especially in the lines "There was no way he would let an Indian get the better of him. The Mayor decided he would teach this Mohican a lesson he would not forget" (15). Bruchac's decision to portray Mayor Schuyler's short-sidedness and underestimation of the cunning of the Mohican man serve to perpetuate the schism between the two men and their respective cultures.

Mayor Schuyler's unilateral character illustrates the ruthless racism that ultimately leads to his own demise at the conclusion of the story, whereas the Mohican's character illustrates his oft-overlooked cunning, resourcefulness, and intelligence that ultimately lead to his fiscal gain and power at the conclusion of the story. Bruchac leverages two stereotypical representations of cultures against each other to demonstrate the potential pitfalls and issues with ethnocentric and racist ideals, and in allowing the Mohican's character to emerge the victor at the end, Bruchac shares his authorial perspective on this problem. His use of wit, brevity, and humor in "Peter Schuyler and the Mohican: A Story of Old Albany" further his perspective of reverence for, respect for, and pride in the Native American culture he deals with in his story.

"Detail"

Jordan Wade

The above image captures the silent strength of the character of Christine in "A Red Girl's Reasoning" as well as showcases the beautiful, intricate, and tedious beadwork known in many Native American cultures.

"A RED GIRL'S REASONING" BY EMILY PAULINE JOHNSON

The themes of ethnocentrism and racism continue in Emily Pauline Johnson's story "A Red Girl's Reasoning." Like Alexie and Bruchac in their stories, Emily Pauline Johnson places her plot at the fork in the dichotomous relationship between the non-Native and Native American cultures. The first paragraph reveals Johnson's viewpoint on racism and establishes the platform on which she builds the rest of her story: "But when you have lived forty years among these people, as I have done; when you have had your wife as long as I have had mine-- for there is no getting over it, Christine's disposition is as native as her mother's, every bit --and perhaps when you've owned for eighteen years a daughter as dutiful, as loving, as fearless, and alas! as obstinate as that little piece you are stealing away from me to-day--I tell you, youngster, you'll know more than you know now" (Johnson 17). The characters of Christine's father and Charlie McDonald use language that smarts of slavery ("when you have owned for eighteen years a daughter") and possession of a trophy or prize ("as a man he consummated his predilections for Indianology by loving, winning, and marrying the quiet little daughter of the English trader, who himself had married a native woman") to describe their relationship with Christine, which further underscores the theme of racism Johnson pulls to the surface in the story (Johnson 17-18).

Johnson's approach to creating a story that provides commentary on ethnocentric, racist ideals lies in her decision to carefully unravel the relationship between Charlie and Christie through the fast-paced, chronological narrative structure. The volta in the piece occurs on page 23: "''Christie,' he said harshly, 'do you know what you have done?' 'Yes...I have angered you, Charlie, and--' 'Angered me? You have disgraced me; and, moreover, you have disgraced yourself and both your parents.' 'Disgraced?' 'Yes, disgraced; you have literally declared to the whole city that your father and mother were never married, and that you are the child of--what shall we call it--love? certainly not legality'" (Johnson 23). Charlie's accusation and complete reluctance to consider Christie's heritage, culture, traditions, and ideals furthers Johnson's perspective of the one-sidedness of the non-Native American culture in this piece. By placing the reader in an objective point of view, Johnson adds to her own authorial credibility and soundness; the reader can see for himself or herself the racial, ethnocentric injustices at work in Charlie and Christie's relationship.

Finally, when Charlie's and Christie's relationship has been severed, Johnson allows her perspective on racism against Native American peoples to take center stage: "She was simple-minded and awfully ignorant to pitch those old Indian laws at him in her fury, but he could not blame her; oh, no, he could not for one moment blame her" (Johnson 26). Johnson allows Charlie's racist ideals to run rampant in his anger with Christie and further demonstrates how much better he thinks he is from inside his interiority, which is a much more powerful choice than conveying it another way. Johnson's perspective is one of incredible reverence and respect, and it is clear to both Native American and non-Native American readers that Johnson's point of view holds the Native American heritage on a level playing field with the dominant cultural norms,

"Shield of Her Husband"

Howard Terpning

The featured painting shows the strength and beauty of the matriarchal Choctaw women, such as the character of Mama in Mihesuah's "Mama and Papa." Additionally, "Shield of Her Husband" shows the isolation and loneliness which result from holding onto a minority culture.

"MAMA AND PAPA" BY DEVON A. MIHESUAH

Devon A. Mihesuah's "Mama and Papa" shares the theme of racism with Alexie's, Bruchac's, and Johnson's stories. Mihesuah's approach is swift and demonstrated through clean, spare writing. Early on in the draft, Mihesuah introduces her perspective on the racist ideals and ethnocentric beliefs of the character of Papa, a non-Native man: "He believed his way was the only way to farm, to pray, to dress, to raise us kids... Papa thought that if he didn't do everything his way, he'd somehow become like the fulls. The last thing he wanted was for people to think he was trying to be an Indian. He got angry when Mama told him about the old traditions, like when Choctaw women owned property and children belonged to their mamas' clans" (Mihesuah 30). Immediately the reader is bent against Papa's character, though he or she experiences Papa through the eyes of an innocent narrator, and Mihesuah aptly lays the foundation for the examination of Native American versus non-Native American culture, tradition, and ideals.

Unlike Alexie's, Bruchac's, and Johnson's pieces, Mihesuah's work includes the perspective of acceptance of Native American traditions in "Mama and Papa." The following passage demonstrates the character of Roger's acceptance of Choctaw customs: "Roger came over in 1814 and married a Choctaw woman. He was different from Papa. He also stopped going to the mission because he wanted to completely change his life. Papa didn't talk to Roger much after his marriage because he was disappointed with him" (Mihesuah 31). Mihesuah deftly handles the tension between those who assimilate to unfamiliar cultural ideals and those who do not by pitting the two strong male characters of Papa and Roger against each other and allowing the reader to draw his or her own conclusions. In doing so, Mihesuah further accentuates her authorial perspective, which is one of shy pride and polite respect for the Native American heritage.

Finally, "Mama and Papa" utilizes vignette-like structure to showcase a wide variety of characters with differing personalities, backgrounds, ages, and experiences. This amalgamation of vignettes perpetuate Mihesuah's authorial credibility and stave off distracting bias in the story. The following paragraph exemplifies this facet of the story: "There was, however, something very wrong with my sister Beula. She was four years older than me. Her skin and hair were dark, and unlike Teague and James who were also dark, she was troubled by her Indian appearance. She preferred Papa to Mama and sounded strange talking with his Irish accent...She believed that we couldn't live like both whites and Indians and that white ways were best" (Mihesuah 33). Mihesuah keenly uses the powerful character of the narrator's older sister to show the effects of exclusionary ethnocentric parenting, such as in the case of Papa's example.

"Lollypop"

Musicanys

This image highlights the innocence and purity of the child delighting in age-appropriate pleasures instead of experiencing the detrimental and life-altering sexual abuse and racism as Wanda does in "Apparitions."

"APPARITIONS" BY ANNA LEE WALTERS

Anna Lee Walters' story entitled "Apparitions" shares the themes of racism and ethnocentrism with Alexie's, Bruchac's, Johnson's, and Mihesuah's stories. Similarly to the aforementioned works, Walters' piece addresses the issue of racism through a concise, powerful narrative that showcases the dichotomy between white and Native American cultures. Walters, like Johnson, Mihesuah, and Alexie, utilizes the influential characters of mother and father as the sounding boards in a multicultural world. Early on in the story, the reader empathizes with Marie Horses as she counts her change in her coin purse and as she attempts to conduct business with a non-Native American saleswoman: "She said harshly, 'You'll have to speak up if you want help around here.' She looked Wanda and her mother up and down, her eyes lingering on Wanda's momma's braids and moccasins...'Horses? It figures'" (Walters 35-6). Even as a child, Wanda feels the immense friction between the non-Native American and Native American cultures and flinches from the brusqueness of the saleswoman.

Perhaps one of the most difficult and important scenes in the story occurs when the non-Native American salesman takes advantage of Wanda while her mother is speaking with the saleswoman. Walters' uses this scene as a way to succinctly and swiftly convey her perspective on the racist ideals of the non-Native American characters in the story. Walters employs the literary device of symbolism to perpetuate feelings of disgust and despair on the part of the reader following the scene of Wanda's sexual abuse: "He looked like the other apparitions in the store glass windows outside. His nice summerwear rustled when he moved, and his white shoes made no sound on he carpeted floor" (Walters 36). The shoes symbolize the non-Native American, ethnocentric ideals throughout the story. For the salesman, the shoes allow him to glide easily across the carpeted floor undetected, while Wanda's experience of a similar pair of shoes is that they are "stiff" and ill fitting (36).

Finally, Walters continues to denounce the racist ways of the non-Native American salespeople in "Apparitions" to the final paragraph of the piece. The salesman's sexual assault of Wanda leaves her panicked and uneasy, as does the cultural friction between the salespeople and her mother. By the ultimate lines of the story, both Wanda and her mother want nothing to do with coming into town: "'Honey, you like coming into town?' 'No,' Wanda said emphatically. 'Me neither,' Marie Horses said, and they walked on in silence" (Walters 37). Walters' ruthlessly conveys her perspective against racism towards Native American peoples as Wanda and Marie Horses convey their mistrust and ill feelings towards the non-Native American salespeople.

RACISM AND NATIVE AMERICA TODAY

Change the Mascot is a current movement set in place by Native American peoples who feel that the NFL Redskins mascot employs racist ideals and is offensive to those of Native American descent. Their anti-racist campaign includes the video "Proud to Be" (featured above) as well as many resources available to those who wish to take action alongside them.

Explore Change the Mascot's website and more on the issue here.